New Modern African History. Editor's Pick American History Since Popular Capitalism in the Age of Revolution. Popular The Ancient World: Rome. Course Course Title Level 21H. History Spring Undergraduate 21H. No courses match the topics and filters you have selected. Some Description Instructor s Prof. Instead of criminalisation, however, this commentary argues that legal regulation of kratom could contribute to building safer communities, promoting development and supporting peace efforts in Myanmar and beyond.
Skip to main content. Search results Sort by Date created Relevance. Troubled Waters Carsten Pedersen. Who feels secure? Racial capitalism and global security Arun Kundnani. The New Constitution in Chile - the rights of care workers, the right to be cared for, toward a feminist national care system 16 December COP Financiers of polluters in charge: A crucial climate summit is becoming the biggest finance greenwash in history pdf, 2.
China and the world webinar series 10 November Energy Transition 01 November Our climate reading list 28 October The Arab uprisings 28 October Executive summary: Global Climate Wall pdf, 1. In addition, there was a tradition of communal activities, albeit on a much more limited scale than that envisaged under ujamaa.
Initially the policy encouraged peasants to move into ujamaa villages, or for those already resident in villages to increase communal, rather than private production. The government invested in water supplies, primary education and health provision in these villages. As a result, the number of ujamaa villages increased from 1, in to 5, in These shifts encouraged many White capitalist farmers to leave the country. There was also a policy of nationalization of the plantations producing crops such as sisal and coffee.
While assistance was given to peasants in the form of fertilizer and some machinery, overall production remained rather low. Production targets were rarely met. Peasants spent the majority of their time working on their own private plots, rather than on communal village lands. This was not, however, compatible with government plans for national development. In a policy of compulsory villagization was announced. In some cases this involved extreme forms of coercion and violence.
The Daily News newspaper reported: Mwalimu [Nyerere] has frequently reiterated during the last ten years the importance of people congregating in villages. Such proximity is a necessity of development. For when people abandon their isolation and come together in well-planned and laid out villages, they can be reached by social services, and they can effectively operate in co-operation.
Only then can they begin to develop. Daily News, 15 November , in Hyden Because of production problems, the focus on communal village production was subsequently reduced and peasants were allowed to produce independently. These internal divisions, along with external 8 pressures resulted in the gradual disintegration of the African 91 populist socialist projects.
This became more popular in the late s 4 and was a response to the perceived limitations of the African 5 socialism model. Rather than trying to build development solutions 6 based on the peculiarly African context, the argument was that the 7 Soviet model of economic development and social welfare was applicable in all geographical locations. The Cuban 9 Revolution was held up as an example of how countries in the 20 South could successfully adopt a Soviet-style development path.
In reality, however, the state bureaucracy was too weak to 30 implement planning systems following a Soviet model, and there 1 were few companies which could be taken into state ownership.
At independence, Frelimo became the sole legal party and ruled the country along socialist lines. There was a strong focus on improving health and education levels, as adult literacy stood at only 15 per cent in and health facilities were very limited and restricted to urban areas.
During the period —8 a national vaccination campaign reached 95 per cent of the population. The heavy industrial route to development and modernization was followed, while in rural areas state collective farms were organized. Equipment was imported for use in factories and farms, but often it remained unused because of a lack of technological knowledge or spare parts.
In the early s, the stability of Mozambique was threatened by military attacks from South Africa. This destabilization, combined with severe drought and increasing economic problems 40 per cent of government expenditure was on defence , forced the government to look for external help.
By Mozambique was forced to accept structural adjustment as the only way to halt the massive economic problems that the country faced. Multi-party elections were held in Mozambique remains one of the most aid-dependent countries in the world Chapter 4.
In addition, opposition military activity often supported 20 by foreign governments meant that creating conditions for stable 1 economic growth were limited. For example, in Mozambique the 2 opposition Renamo organization received funding from South 3 Africa. Increasing debt and economic problems forced many 4 countries to accept restructuring packages associated with IMF 5 loans Sutton and Zaimeche This shift to market-oriented 6 economies with multi-party democracies has been evident 7 throughout the South Table 3.
Further reading Bradshaw, M. Excellent collection of chapters considering the transitional processes in Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union. Forbes, D. Although this book is rather dated, it provides a very useful overview of the economic and regional development policies of a number of socialist regimes in the South. While most have now moved away from this form of development, there are many useful examples of how a socialist perspective has been put into development practice.
Frank, A. A classic presentation of the dependency approach. Young, C. Useful websites www. Includes information about key Marxist writers and their publications. Includes sites on African socialism. Worldwide organization of socialist, social democratic and labour parties. This led to some 2 rethinking of how development in terms of improving standards and 3 quality of life was to be achieved.
Under this approach, the focus of development 9 policies was to be directly at the poorest people in society, rather 40 than at macro-level policies that would indirectly help the poor. These basic needs included not only the essentials for physical survival, but also access to services, employment and decision-making to provide a real basis for participation.
Plate 4. Box 4. In addition, a basic needs 5 approach needed public service provision to be expanded and 6 developed to meet the needs of the poor. Meeting the needs 1 of the poor would not only help reduce poverty levels, but also 2 would improve the education and skill levels of the population, with 31 the concomitant potential for contributing to greater economic 4 growth.
Friedmann a: 9 59—66 outlines how the basic needs 40 1 Plate 4. Decentralization The focus on the sub-national scale for development continued into the s and s. In market-led economies, there was a tendency to move away from central government activities and decision-making to a more decentralized approach. The rationale for adopting decentralization was both economic and political. In political terms, by transferring decision-making to the more local level, people would be able to have a greater say in the decisions made about their services.
This process of decentralization has been a major feature of policy-making in most countries, both North and South. Within a neo-liberal agenda, decentralization is regarded as a way of reducing state control, albeit in some cases just moving policy-making from central government to regional or local government. As part of the shift from a state-oriented to market-oriented economy in China and transition economies see Chapter 3 , decentralization has been introduced for similar reasons.
In terms of service provision, health and education expenditure, for example, was determined centrally and funds were provided to provincial and local governments.
This meant that healthcare was accessible and affordable for the majority of the population. Complicated medical 7 conditions were referred to health centres and hospitals in larger urban areas Chetley As part of the reform process in China, 9 provincial and local governments have been increasingly responsible 20 for raising their own funds to provide services Tang and Bloom 1 This has had the effect of increasing regional inequalities in 2 healthcare provision in China Table 4.
As described 7 below, participation, has become a key element of development 8 theories and practice, but meaningful and widespread participation is 9 much harder to achieve than has been predicted. This has been associated with 7 the move towards neo-liberal, market-led approaches as outlined in 8 Chapter 2. As well as the devolution of elements of power and 9 decision-making to the local state as described in the previous 40 section, the move away from the top-down approaches has been 1 associated in particular with the growth of non-governmental organizations NGOs.
First, however, it is important to realize the range of organizations which can fall under the NGO heading Vakil see Table 4. There are a number of axes along which NGOs can be divided. For example, NGOs can be very small-scale and operate in only one region or country.
At the other extreme would be the very large organizations such as Oxfam and Save the Children Fund which are Northern-based, but have partner organizations throughout the world. Different NGOs will also have different forms of approach, either in terms of the overall development philosophy, or through the types of activities in which they get involved see www.
First, it is argued that NGOs can provide services that are much more appropriate to local communities. Because of the scale 2 of operation and the linkages with local people, they are also 3 able to react more quickly to local demands Green and Matthias 41 Because of the 7 ways in which NGOs are embedded in local communities, it is 8 argued that they have to be accountable to the local people.
This 91 means that local people have a greater say in what activities are 10 carried out, and also that their participation in such activities 1 creates an environment where empowerment is more likely. If 2 such participation is expanded, these activities can help develop 31 stronger civil society and contribute to processes of 4 democratization see below. The NPA refers 2 3 to the neo-liberal approach within 4 the international institutions, such 5 as the World Bank.
This has been particularly the case as governments have reduced spending as part of structural adjustment policies, but may also be because of the weakness of state structures due to war or civil unrest. For example, in India there are at least two million associations and in Ghana are registered.
There are numerous examples of how NGOs have been able to provide services for communities when government assistance is not forthcoming or appropriate, and market-provided services are too expensive. Such NGO activities may include social welfare provision such as housing Box 4. However, the claims regarding NGOs have been revealed as being somewhat overstated. While many improvements can be made, NGOs alone cannot achieve everything that is expected of them.
Table 4. These 2 have often been of poor quality and have lacked access to basic services, 31 such as water and sanitation. The housing 6 provided by VHC is largely bamboo and participants construct the houses 7 themselves.
The simple design of a house made of a wood frame with bamboo panels on a platform means that the houses can be constructed in a 9 day. In addition, jobs are created in three panel manufacturing plants and the 20 bamboo is cultivated on sustainable plantations.
For those households unable to afford even low levels of repayment, the NGO has funds from donations allowing them to provide 6 housing for free. Being of bamboo, the houses only last for about 10 years, but 8 they act as an excellent form of shelter in the short term. Services, such as water and 9 electricity are not provided as part of the scheme; residents must work 40 together to lobby local authorities to supply basic urban services.
The kind of power that we often think about is the power to be able to get other people to do what we want, or the power that other people have to make us do something. It is often claimed Box 4. Power to The ability to see possibilities for change. Power with The power that comes from individuals working together collectively to achieve common goals.
Power within Feelings of self-worth and self-esteem that come from within individuals. This is because empowerment is something that comes from 3 within Townsend et al. While NGOs may be able to provide 41 a context within which a process of empowerment is possible, it is 5 only individuals who can choose to take those opportunities and to 6 use them.
For example, illiteracy is often regarded as an obstacle 7 to participation in waged work and political life. NGOs may be 8 able to provide facilities and teachers to help individuals develop 91 their literacy skills, but individuals themselves have to want to 10 participate and to use their newly-acquired skills. This does not mean 1 that disadvantage and exclusion are the fault of individuals, there are 2 clearly structural constraints, but it does mean that NGOs cannot be 31 viewed as direct channels for empowerment; rather they can help set 4 up conditions within which individuals and groups can empower 5 themselves.
Participation is usually used as an umbrella term to refer to 4 the involvement of local people in development activities, often 5 NGO based. However, this participation varies in nature Table 4. Participatory rural appraisal PRA is an approach which many organizations have now adopted Chambers For example, when trying to assess economic status within a village, a purely income-based approach would ask questions about earnings from wages and market activities.
In contrast, PRA approaches to wealth ranking would ask villagers to come up with their own indicators of wealth in the area and then use these to rank household wealth. The methods used are therefore appropriate to the context. PRA techniques have been increasingly adopted in urban settings, using the same principles.
Participation can also be used to refer to the involvement of local people in the actual agenda setting of development organizations. To be fully participatory, the agenda needs to be set by the communities involved, rather than outside agencies deciding on the priorities to be addressed and then working with local people to achieve them.
The two previous interpretations of participation can be regarded as contributing to processes of addressing power inequalities in development and also attempting to focus more on grassroots forms of knowledge than external, particularly Northern ones.
The focus on participation as a route to empowerment is linked to this. However, far too often this form of participation is not achieved; instead local people are involved in meetings or contributing labour, but this is not participation in the wider sense which can be linked to empowerment. It was started in by urban- 7 based development practitioners who set up the Social Work and Research 8 Centre.
The name was changed later and it is now run by local people. This includes solar power and hand pumps. By 4 using this low-cost technology which is easy to maintain and use, Barefoot 5 College has been able to provide services to about villages and over 6 , people. Income is also 2 received by charging for the services it provides. Dependence on external aid assistance Tables 4. In —90 there were 25 NGOs registered 2 with the Ministry of Home Affairs, but by this number had increased 3 to Of course, the actual number of NGOs is likely to be much higher as 41 not all groups will register, but the quantitative shift is very apparent.
Most NGOs focus on service provision such as 8 healthcare or education, or improvements in income-generating capacity. In 91 the context of structural adjustment and the decline in state-provided 10 services, this focus is understandable and important, but it does not 1 necessarily deal with the themes of participation and empowerment.
NGOs are often presented as meeting 4 the needs of the very poorest in society, but in Tanzania in , nearly 60 5 per cent of the registered NGOs were located in Dar es Salaam which is the 6 richest part of the country. Another 10 per cent were based in Arusha and 6 7 per cent in the Kilimanjaro region, both among the wealthier regions. The poorer regions were very poorly served by registered NGOs, leaving them 9 less able to access funds and support. Such schemes can help marginalized groups to 4 improve their incomes and therefore the health and education of household 5 members.
In some cases, feelings of empowerment may also be an outcome. NGO membership was dominated by women from 8 middle-income groups who were older, married and Christian rather than 9 Muslim.
We knew how 51 much it would cost. I would very much like to join, but the 8 problem is time. Broadly it covers activities 3 and organizations that are separate from the state and from the 4 market, but the debates rage about the precise boundaries.
This 51 diversity of interpretation contributes to its widespread appeal Van 6 Rooy However, as McIlwaine states in her overview of civil 7 society and development geography: 8 9 While there is little precise agreement as to which activities should be 40 included within civil society, particularly in terms of political and 1 economic associations. These voices may provide a challenge to the state.
However, as Mercer argues, far too often NGOs are assumed to provide these forms of alternative political activity, but in reality this is not achieved. She states that just counting the increase in NGOs does not provide us with a satisfactory measure of expanding civil society.
These relations are based on trust and there are expectations regarding how you should behave in these social interactions.
Social capital is regarded as another asset which can be used by individuals or groups to contribute to their economic and social advancement, just as can economic capital such as money and property or human capital education and health. In the case of Santo Domingo Box 4. The settlement began as a squatter settlement in and by there were over 33, residents.
The population of Los Manguitos was able to cope with many of the resulting problems by calling on neighbours to help out and also by using local organizations. Householders who were forced to leave their homes often moved in with neighbours or slept in the local church which was set up as a shelter.
In addition, local community groups organized the evacuation process and helped clean up the debris and carry out repairs afterwards. This was without the assistance of the government or international aid.
This mobilization of social capital at times of emergency is an important indication of how these ties can help poor vulnerable communities. However, links to external organizations, either national or international would help reduce vulnerability to hazards and would also help this community if disaster struck again.
At the moment, the bonding capital between individuals in the community is strong and there is evidence of bridging capital through the creation of community organizations. There needs to be more bridging capital, allowing local residents and groups to access money and assistance from outside Los Manguitos.
Peet with Hartwick 41 summarize the arguments of Majid Rahnema in relation to this 5 process: 6 7 Rahnema argued that governments and development institutions 8 became interested because participation was no longer perceived as a 91 threat, was politically and economically attractive, was a good fundraising device, and was in keeping with a move towards the 10 privatisation of development as part of neoliberalism.
This does not rule out alliances and 2 transnational networks see Chapter 7. The post-development approach will be discussed further in Chapter 8. Discussion questions 1 Why have NGOs been regarded as the solution to development problems? Further reading Chambers, R. Cooke, B. Excellent collection of chapters on what participation means and how it has been adopted as a standard aim of many development projects. London: Earthscan. Useful collection of chapter on different elements of NGO activity.
Large collection of 31 documents and videos on participation, including large number of items on 4 practical implementation and assessment of participation. An excellent site for up-to-date 7 development information.
This is not just because social and cultural variables affect economic growth, but also that social and cultural norms and expectations need to be considered in their own right. As Rostow discussed in relation to the linear model of economic growth, switches from one stage to another may be assessed through economic output, but many of the driving forces of a shift from subsistence agricultural societies to urban industrial ones relate mainly to social structures.
Rather than elite groups using their money for family and clan purposes, for industrial development to take place there needs to be a move to investment in new infrastructure and means of production see Chapter 2 for more details.
Thus, modernization theories refer not only to economic changes, but to social transformations as well. Just as biological 5 organisms become increasingly complex through processes of 6 competition and natural selection, so, such theorists suggested, did 7 societies.
In his 3 view, societies were constructed of a set of moral and ethical norms 4 into which individuals were born. Societies would have different 5 forms of punishment or control to ensure that the society remained in 6 equilibrium. In this sense, therefore, Durkheim adopted the ideas of 7 natural systems in assuming that harmony and equilibrium were 8 constantly striven for.
Attempts to 3 break from this mould were punished through severe forms of 4 retribution. The breakdown of the traditional orders, which were supported by religion, would result in many people feeling that their lives had lost meaning; they would feel isolated without guidelines for moral behaviour. Martinussen 26 This was regarded as detrimental to the continued functioning of the society, so various institutions should be set up to encourage social interaction.
The concept of a harmonious society acting as an organism was also used by Talcott Parsons —79 , an American sociologist who built on the work of Durkheim in his analysis of social development He argued that over time, societies adapted and evolved to become complex.
Instead, humans are viewed as 4 other animals, acting purely on instinct in the case of naturalism , or 5 subsumed within the operation of wider society as in structural 6 functionalism. The nineteenth-century German theorist Max Weber 7 approached social change from a different perspective. This does not mean that Weber saw no role for religion in 7 social change and the development of capitalism. He did not claim to provide a universal explanation for capitalist economic development, choosing instead to consider the nature of German society in the nineteenth century Preston Post-colonialism and post-modernism Many sociological theories of development have been criticized for their lack of engagement with cultural diversity.
Rather than recognizing that the world is populated by thousands of different religious, ethnic and social groups, many of the development theories derived from the North have assumed a particular form of social organization, either as a starting point, or as a goal. During the s and s, post-modern and post-colonial approaches to theorizing development became more popular. As previous chapters have shown, modernization theories were Eurocentric. Post-modernism considers the ways in which these assumptions can be challenged.
The deconstruction of development categories is a key part of post-modern approaches to development. Radcliffe 84—5 4 states that, 5 6 Postcolonialism refers to a way of criticizing the legacies of 7 colonialism in the South.
Orientalism shows how these 2 ideas are constructed by particular groups of people at particular 3 times, i. However, the importance of recognizing diversity in constructing development theories and practices is crucial as is an awareness of the context in which theories are formulated. In the remainder of this chapter, three elements of social diversity will be considered; ethnicity, gender and life stage. Hettne claims that both modernization theories and classical Marxist theories fail to consider ethnic diversity in great detail.
The members of such as group are, or feel themselves to be, or are thought to be, bound together by common ties of race, nationality, religion or culture. Ogden —40 For modernization theory, many forms of cultural practice are regarded as an obstacle to development see above because they are considered to represent non-rational, collective, traditional ways of life, unsuited to individualistic capitalist development. Regardless of ideology, the focus on development at a national scale means that any diversity within the population needs to be incorporated into a national project.
Ethnic diversity can represent a challenge to this national approach. Within this context, the spatial 7 concentration of groups enables a construction of ethnic 8 identity linked to a particular territory, making the notion of 9 ethnodevelopment through self-determination a logistical possibility, 30 if not a politically-favoured one. The link between ethnicity and 1 territory is not always so easily made. Plate 5. For example, photography may not be allowed 7 Temporal limitation Host community can set limits on when tourists can enter the 8 territory.
This best-selling text for introductory Latin American history courses encompasses political and diplomatic theory, class structure and economic organization, culture and religion, and the environment. The integrating framework is the dependency theory, the most popular interpretation of Latin American history, which stresses the economic relationship of Latin American nations to wealthier nations, particularly the United States.
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